Consciousness, Literature and the Arts
Archive
Volume 13 Number 1, April 2012
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“My Heart Passed Through My Mouth”: African Telling of a Most Afraid Experience
Introduction
To speak of being afraid means exploring one’s world view. World view is the cultural foundation of basic assumptions about the nature of reality through which individual perception of fear and the response to that perception is filtered. The purpose of world view is to arrange perceived notions of the universe in such a way an individual may perform within it with minimum difficulty. This is never more true than in a life threatening situation when one must act quickly. A world view functions as a cognitive scheme, an unconscious mechanism to shape behavior, and fundamentally to help a person understand life. “A world view comprises images of Self and of all that is recognized as not-Self, plus ideas about relationship between them” (Kearney, 1984, 41).
Kearney (1984) suggests the fundamental organizational pattern of all world views is comprised of seven universals: Self, Other, Relationship, Time, Space, Classification, and Causality. The first classification an individual formulates is believed to be grasping a distinction between Self and Other. How Self relates to this category distinction is the prime function of the Relationship universal. Who am I and what is my relationship with the Other that makes me afraid? Each of the universal categories exists as an arrangement of ideas and behavior specific to each culture as a means of making sense of the life experience. While the seven universal categories are firmly rooted in each culture, the content of these categories remains variable across cultures. It is these content variances which distinguish one world view from another. What scares you in one culture may not necessarily evoke fear in another cultural context. Across cultures, people unconsciously rely on world view to provide comprehensive answers to questions a person must address throughout their lifetime; questions in relation to Self, the world outside Self, and forces perceived to encroach on Self and/or the community to which Self belongs (Weiss, 1992).
Language as the principal semiotic system of a culture is perhaps the most important phenomenon by which a people frame, express, and advance their world view. Language is grounded in cultural meaning, indeed it is a complex network of social signs and reflects the interaction of a person with reality. Thus the analytic purpose of considering language in research is an exploration of how language reflects important cultural and social ideals, understandings, and patterns of thought. Exploring language then can be a medium through which the cultural maze of jumbled thought may be sorted into a clearer understanding of indigenous reality.
Self narrative is an appropriate method to investigate the nature of Self considering its cultural universality (Miller et al,. 1990). Everyone the world over has a story to tell about a time when they were startled, spooked, apprehensive, or afraid. People use these personal narratives to think about Self and others and to make decisions concerning their behavior (Gardiner, 1985). Baumeister and Newman (1994) reason that narratives may be understood as exercises in self interpretation because narratives are how individuals make sense of their life experience. Cultures invite certain self identities and discourage others, thus self narratives frequently offer accurate accounts of Self formed out of social expectation.
Narrative psychologists believe the essence of human thought is found in the stories people use to inform and indoctrinate themselves to define reality. Steffen argues that narratives with shared symbols of culture found within are first in importance to the foundational structure of world view and social structure. He goes further to suggest narrative coupled with symbol is “the primary expression of worldview and social structure” by asserting the two act in tandem as perceptual agents constructing and reconstructing the reality of a people and their relationships (1998, 478). To him, symbol and narrative dominate world view and constitute the principal and essential nature of communication.
Narratives not only embody world view, the role is much broader to include transmitting world view across age differences, generational lines, economic status, and geographic boundaries. Assumptions about context specific conceptions are often difficult to elicit in cross cultural study as in the case of the non-physical Self which often includes incorporeal elements such as soul, spirit, will, etc. The gathering of narratives for close examination can often reveal the symbols of a domain like the non-physical Self and the basic understanding of those symbols in the narrative text. Narrative usage goes beyond mere literary amusement to operate in structuring thought for a person, a people, a world view (Bradt, 1997).
Self narrative reveals the person and society, it is a “window on truth” and a “mirror to nature” (Gergen & Gergen, 1988; Steffen, 1998). Self narratives are an excellent source of firsthand, personal experience from an eyewitness point of view. Notions about self fulfillment or threats to Self are depicted from actual, real life examples. In this way, personal narratives serve as behavioral examples from every day experiences. Narratives offer concrete illustrations of individual and cultural assumptions about reality and, as Steffen aptly notes, consideration of narrative goes beyond the “what” question of main stream world view and social structure studies toward answering the “why” question. The interesting question is not what you are afraid of but, why are you afraid of it?
The personal narrative, “I Counted My Sins,” was told by a 39 year old Torobo elder named John Nkoitiko. It is the narrative he chose to tell to describe the experience he was most afraid in his life. The interview took place on September 25, 1997 in the Torobo homeland of the southern Mau Escarpment in Kenya. The story offers concrete illustrations of individual and cultural assumptions about what the Torobo believe to be naturally so. The details of facing and surviving a life threatening experience, the physical and cognitive reactions as well as the reasons for how the experience is interpreted are described in this African telling.
Context of narrative text
The term ‘Torobo’ is commonly applied in East Africa to almost any group living or historically associated with hunting-gathering. It is a catchall term for many bands located throughout the large geographical area of East Africa speaking languages of differing language families (Kenney, 1981). The majority of Torobo in Kenya speak Nilotic Maa or Kalenjin and share part of their cultural heritage and identity with either of the two larger, more predominant ethnic groups using these languages - the Maasai and Kipsigis. John Nkoitiko is a community member of one of the seven Maa speaking Torobo groups occupying the mountainous region of the southern Mau Escarpment. The closest neighboring tribe to Torobo, pastoral Maasai, inhabit the savannah plains at the western foot of the escarpment; the eastern foot is a conglomeration of mixed tribal affiliations with Kikuyu representing the largest Kenyan ethnic group.
The communities of Torobo on the southern Mau Escarpment have evolved from a nomadic hunting-gathering society, dependent on wild game and honey, into an agro-pastoral community with permanent settlements. Torobo these days subsist predominantly on crops of potatoes and livestock of sheep, goats, and a few cattle. The availability of goods is quite limited on the escarpment itself; therefore Torobo make frequent trips by foot to small kiosks on the Rift Valley floor that are near main traffic ways. The Rift Valley itself is the natural habitat to a wide variety of animals who roam at will including lions, hyenas, elephants, giraffe, and gazelle. In the Kenyan context, man and animal are locked into a struggle to coexist.
Narrative Text: “I Counted My Sins”
I got up one day and went to a shop in Melelo to shop.
When I returned, let's say at 3:00 am, I went through a forest.
As I was passing through the forest, I entered into an area of elephants without knowing it.
I went right in the middle of them. I was afraid and tried to look for a place [to escape] but was surrounded.
[I looked for] a place [to escape] early in the morning, but could not find one because the elephants were on all sides.
I was afraid so my heart tried to pass through the mouth. My heart passed through the mouth!
And then my whole body was shaking. I counted my sins and said, "I have died. It is the end of me this day."
Today is when I am going to die." When I was still surprised by the elephants, my heart came and I prayed to Enkai.
I said, "Oh! Enkai, Enkai! I pray to you Enkai, Enkai! Today I will surely die. Oh! My children!
I cried again but Enkai helped me. I went on my knees, just [crawled] on my knees and stomach under the oleleshua plant.
I passed under the plant then looked for another and passed under again.
I took a hold of grass until I went far enough to get up.
I regained my strength and went until I reached camp.
When I reached the house where I lived, I still had the feeling, are the elephants following me by smelling my footsteps?
I was afraid even afterwards and heard my heart saying, "Tuk! Tuk! Tuk! Tuk!"
My heart was scared because it thought, "The elephants are still running after me."
The heart said, "Tuk! Tuk! Tuk! Tuk!" For many hours later, I knew that the elephants did not follow me.
My whole body, the heart and the joints, stayed very tired and sore for an hour or longer.
I prayed to Enkai because if not for Him, I could have died because no one else saved me only Enkai.
I do not have any sin [in my life] or I would have died.
I counted my rescue as only from Enkai who brought me back because I could have been killed by all those wild animals.
Yes, that day Enkai saved me because I could have died.
Yes, the true living Enkai is the one who helped me and not any other god.
Yes, he saved me and removed me from inside the elephants (see Appendix A).
Analysis of narrative text
“I Counted My Sins” offers a glimpse into two universal categories of Torobo world view – Self and Other. Torobo notions of Self and those non-physical elements of Self Torobo believe comprise each individual are significant assumptions in the personal narrative. Germane to the discussion here are the non-physical elements of heart (oltau), soul (enkishui), spirit (inkiyanget), and breath (entoma). The category of Other has two subcategories the main character of the narrative, John Nkoitiko, is unexpectantly thrown into some type of exchange. First is the realm of supernatural Other which includes the divine Creator, Enkai and evil spirits (inkiyangeta torrok). The second is earthly Other categorized as nature and represented by elephants. Beliefs about community Other (Torobo neighbors) and how this category ultimately defines sin also is an important classification to fully understand the narrative.
Torobo World View of Self
In “I Counted My Sins,” John Nkoitiko describes his experience of great fear by referring to the apprehensive voice of his heart loudly projecting, “Tuk! Tuk! Tuk! Tuk!” The heart serves as the key to vitality in Torobo thought. Indeed, the most important word in the vocabulary of Torobo anthropology is oltau, the heart. The translation “heart” for oltau is to be cautiously accepted with the understanding it leads our scientific grasp of the term into incorporeal reality. Torobo presuppose the function of the human heart as a physical organ yet envisage far beyond the given anatomical place and physiological role assigned to the heart. The essential activities of oltau include not only physical duties but non-physical obligations as well.
According to Torobo belief, all living creatures are made alive by virtue of enkishui (soul), entoma2 (breath), and inkiyanget3 (spirit). It is these three elements which enable both man and animal to breathe and maintain life. The soul element, which is considered life itself, resides in oltau giving rise to the belief “the heart exists for the soul” (Simon Ngayami, personal communication, February 24, 1998). The word enkishui serves in consuetude as ‘life’ and ‘soul.’ However, Torobo speak of the heart as synonymous with life or soul, Etii enkishui oltau, meaning, “Life is the heart.” At some point before birth, Creator Enkai takes a part of his original soul essence and original spirit essence and places it within the heart of the unborn. At birth, divine breath from the soul and spirit elements stir the breath of life in the youngster and the soul and spirit begin life giving action. Enkishui (soul) is the indwelling presence of the divine person, Enkai. It is the essence of life divinely given as the activating principle. Whereas Enkai is enkishui, meaning God is life, the individual only has enkishui. In the hierarchy of non-physical Self elements, enkishui is given the highest position because breath and spirit are lodged within the soul. The source of life from all three elements comes out from the soul element which is housed in the heart.
The spirit element is also divinely given but is changeable, meaning a person most likely will not keep the original spirit essence Enkai placed in their heart at birth throughout their lifetime. This defines the spirit element in a different manner from the soul element. The spirit element is divinely given and necessary to activate life, but it is not viewed as a constant of the divine within. Breath is partially soul (entoma) and partially spirit (inkiyanget), however breath is understood as the divine presence of Enkai within humanity. John Nkoitiko and every other Torobo tribesman can only exist as a living being when Self is animated by the direct gift of enkishui, entoma, and inkiyanget by Enkai. His life force is present in man and animal alike and return to him in death. Soul, spirit, and breath are merely borrowed properties by a person that eventually must be returned to the owner, Creator Enkai. Only Enkai himself is everlasting and eternal, a Creator attribute not ascribed to the created. The soul is described as “enkitanyanyukoto Enkai” or “the image of God in us,” meaning enkishui is the image of the divine present in each person (Julius Ngayami, personal communication, August 15, 1997). Most Torobo believe there is no difference between the soul of Creator Enkai and the soul in man, because the soul element is taken by Enkai from his original soul essence, placed in a person for their lifetime, and returned to him at death. The soul element is an eternal entity of divine origin which denotes the permanence of Enkai while accentuating the mortality of the individual. A proverb states, “Blood is thicker than water.” Here ‘blood’ represents soul, and ‘water’ symbolizes life on earth (Inkingis Olodabash, personal communication, June 16, 1998). Just as blood is heavier than water, the soul is heavier than life. This means the soul will remain alive in Enkai but life on earth will end after physical death. Torobo stand apart from the majority of African peoples in believing earthly death is the complete end of a person. A life threatening event to a Torobo means the very existence of Self is threatened because there is no spiritual or psychical plane of existence a person enters as an afterlife to earthly existence.
The separation of breath, soul, and spirit from the physical body signals and constitutes the end of life and the extinction of Self. It is no wonder then that to describe extreme fear, the protagonist of the narrative used a typical Torobo saying, “The heart passed through the mouth.” Literally, he was scared unto death. The heart coming out of the mouth and leaving the physical body signaled his life was over and his life force elements would return to Enkai.
To relate courage, John Nkoitiko used the expression, “My heart came.” Interestingly enough, this expression of courage implies the storyteller has regained his ability to think. Torobo believe the basis for emotive states such as joy, love, fear, sadness, and courage is one’s heart. Occasionally emotions such as peace and happiness are initiated in the stomach in reference to sufficient nutrition, but most often oltau is attributed the responsibility for emotive capacity. A signal is given by the heart for a particular response and the feeling then comes out from oltau such as, “Joy comes from inside the heart” (Nkarusel Ngiria, personal communication, June 25, 1998). The storyteller of “I Counted My Sins” related, “My heart was scared because it thought, ‘The elephants are still running after me.’” The Maa word for ‘thought,’ ajo, is also translated ‘to say.’ The heart was able to think and speak to John and relate fear of continuing presence of danger. The panic of his heart (oltau) was so great that it caused a lingering fatigue throughout his whole body. His heart had been in great peril, indeed his very life, and this had brought his physical being to utter exhaustion. The particular thoughts and movements of the heart in the narrative are a glimpse of its centrality in Torobo world view.
Torobo World View of Supernatural Other
Creator Enkai
The Torobo conceptual scheme of soul, spirit, and breath is key in supporting the supremacy of Enkai as Creator and source of all life: “Papa o yieyio epooki toki,” refers to Enkai as the “father and mother of everything” (Ikayo Lolokula, personal communication, August 16, 1997). Divine presence in the soul fixes the element under the control of Enkai giving credence to the belief “he is the keeper of the soul, the protector of the soul/life” (Kuileken Ngidat, personal communication, June 23, 1998). The soul element is cared for by Enkai to offer enkishui ultimate protection. No other authority has the supreme power to protect life than the Creator himself. Even though individual life is prearranged by Enkai and he has divine foreknowledge of what that life will contain, the presence of the divine in the soul defends against the forces of evil seeking to destroy a person.
Maintenance of life force is a significant concept in Torobo world view. If obtaining life is the most treasured gift a person receives, then maintaining that life is of first concern. Torobo classify Enkai as the benefactor obligated to provide for the welfare of man throughout his lifetime. This functions to assure the individual of a hopeful future with the confidence Creator Enkai will use his inexhaustible resources to respond to any and all exigencies. It is interesting to note the sin Enkai is most annoyed with is ordinarily identified by Torobo as murder. It is Enkai who gives life, therefore Enkai should be the only one to extinguish life. Murder is viewed as usurping the authority of Creator Enkai, not an envious position by any Torobo.
Enkai is the omnipotent, omnipresent Creator Torobo describe as invisible and imperceptible to the naked eye. He is the origin of all things, the source of all existence, the exclusive and entire explanation of the universe. Because Enkai is the sole being of perfection, purity, and goodness, he sustains all life with his infinite power and is anthroposocial toward man. A Torobo idiom states, “Enkai naibungita enkishui” translated, “Enkai is the power maintaining life,” and he does so because of his perfect goodness (Mary Nchoshoi, personal communication, August 13, 1997). There is no organized worship for Enkai, no priesthood, shrine or congregation in traditional Torobo practice. Instead he is invoked by individuals in everyday life struggles and in times of crises.
Every individual regardless of their ethical condition may communicate with Enkai at any time through the spirit element housed in the soul. When John cried out, “Oh Enkai, Enkai,” he communicated with the divine spirit to Spirit. A significant function of the spirit element is the communicative link the spirit provides an individual with the divine Creator. The spirit is the obvious choice as a communicative element of man with Enkai because of the way in which Torobo conceive of prayer. A person needs a specific desire in order to pray and, since the spirit generates desire and has direct contact with all other Self elements in the heart, the spirit is a catalyst of Self want. Perhaps the reason for Enkai giving man part of his divine spirit is to put a person in constant touch with the divine if he so chooses. Enkai helps, delivers, protects, and cares for out of divine duty as Creator. One informant explained that “his responsibility as Creator is to take care of people” (Julius Ngayami, personal communication, August 16, 1997). A basic feature of self existence is making divine power a tool to be used by man for his personal welfare and benefit. By manifesting behavior consistent with a good social values, a Torobo sincerely believes this compels Enkai and his good spirits into personal service. The good nature of the Creator is a causal force for a positive life situation. Because Enkai is the giver of life, he is therefore the benefactor of life. It is his responsibility to protect life and make life bearable.
The divine exists as a utility for the benefit of man. The essentiality of the divine for individual existence places emphasis on what man can exact from Enkai to help the life experience along. If Enkai sees all, then he is cognizant of the good actions of a person and aware of their personal need. If he has knowledge of their need then he must fill it, because he is good and good cannot turn away from need. Personal good works are justification for divine help insomuch as Enkai is obligated to hear and accommodate these actions.
Earthly Other & Evil Spirits
The same spirit essence is present in animals as in man, but personal volition is only afforded to humanity. The animal kingdom is drawn into two earthly Other classes, those with good spirits who are no threat to man and those with evil spirits who are threatening to man. Animals cannot control the spirit within; neither are beasts able to resist the nature of their spirit element. Elephants in the African context are quite different from their Asian counterparts who have a more docile disposition. African elephants are dangerous and are to be avoided with as much enthusiasm as one feeding peanuts to Zoo elephants in the Western world. Torobo consider elephants a threat to man and thus possessing an evil spirit. To be surrounded by wild African elephants is no better than entering a den of lions from a Torobo point of view.
Evil spirits, inkiyangeta torrok, are the mystical powers which are behind every wrong deed and detrimental circumstance. All that is considered bad for man whether it be socially immoral or threatens survival does not occur by happenstance but involves the active role of evil spirits. Inkiyangeta torrok seek to destroy human life and cause all life threatening situations regardless if a good or evil spirit resides in the spirit element of an individual. The causal explanation for the Why? of an event is made in supernaturalistic terms specifically involving the spirit element in man and spirit entities in general. In a Torobo community, if an elephant kills a man or if a person dies from an accident or snakebite, the cause of death would generally be regarded as from a spirit. A purely naturalistic explanation would not suffice for all good is brought to man from Enkai by good spirits, and all bad is brought to man by evil spirits.
Surviving a serious life threatening experience verifies no sin is present in the life of an individual or Enkai is using the situation to correct the person. John’s immediate response was “I counted my sins.” Evil spirits were threatening his life; and John concluded that whatever wrongs he had accumulated against community Other, his punishment was now, “It is the end of me this day.” However, evil spirits also have the power to threaten life without invitation or a committed offense by the heart. A natural conclusion for John was, “I do not have any sin in my life or I would have died.”
Torobo World View of Self and Causality
Unqualified random events involving man do not exist in Torobo world view. The reason for some happening may remain unknown but the causal force is understood to involve at least one of three factors: (a) Creator Enkai, (b) the free will of man, and (c) good and evil spirits operating outside man and within his Self to bring about change. Torobo believe that ultimately a person’s life, all the experiences, happenings, and influences are by the will of Creator Enkai, “Everything happens by the will of Enkai,” consequently Torobo do not believe in luck (Nkarusel Ngiria, personal communication, June 25, 1998). “Enkai has arranged each person’s life,” hence he has foreknowledge of what that life will hold (Julius Ngayami, personal communication, June 15, 1998). The idea of divine will as the preeminent causal determinant applies to all life besides man. If a tree rots and falls to the ground, it is because Enkai made it with a temporal lifespan. Torobo trace the origin of ordinary, regular occurrences not involving man back to divine will and leave aside any involvement by spirits. In the case of man, divine will still occupies supreme position but spirits are almost always included as well. Here, the natural course of events describe but do not explain; true explanations invariably refer to spirit involvement by the consent of Enkai.
A strict predestination doctrine is avoided by belief in individual free will. A proverb declares, “Habit is a disease,” meaning the behavior practiced is what one will become (Simon Ngayami, personal communication, June 24, 1998). The word used here for habit is olkuak, the personality element also given the meaning of destiny. Each individual has the capacity to control their personality or their destiny, because ultimately a person is responsible for controlling their personality.
Personality is recognized as cultural behavior. Personality, habit, behavior, and destiny are all bound together and shaped in part by free will. However, the state of voluntary choice is greatly influenced by spirit entities. Once a decision has been made by free will, it is a spirit which causes the process to come to fruition. The causal choice is almost always by the individual themselves, but the causal power to implement the choice is relegated to spirits by divine allowance (Tunda Ngayami, personal communication, August 22, 1997). Thus, causal explanations involving man for both natural occurrences and the unusual are supernaturalistic at the core.
Personal free will can either lead Self toward good or evil. Allowing personal emotion and desire to make decisions which lead to a corrupted soul is dangerous and must be avoided. A tarnished soul results from an evil spirit occupying the spirit element and guiding a person into wrongful behavior. A corrupted soul lowers resistance by Self to evil and causes one to be vulnerable to a variety of evil choices. Any event of negative consequence is regarded as brought to man by evil spirits. Generally it is recognized as evil spirits intent on their evil purposes and/or allowed by Enkai as punishment for some unjust act toward community Other (Torobo neighbors) and as a means of bringing the person to repentance. Divine portraiture for Torobo includes the depiction of Enkai as judge. As literally over all, seeing all, “Etii Enkai shumata eromita iyiot pooki,” meaning, “Enkai judges as he looks down on all men” (Ikayo Lolokula, personal communication, August 16, 1997). It is his divine responsibility to judge the behavior of each individual. Divine judgment carries the connotation of retribution for evil actions and not generally regarded as having a positive outcome. Enkai judges with consequences only meted out in this earthly life because Self does not exist beyond the physical plane. Sickness is a common life event and not at all unusual. Torobo do not believe any illness is fatal. Recovery from infirmity is a given because of the healing power and nature of Enkai. Thus they would not ask, “Why did he become ill?” or, “Why did that disease kill him?” Rather the question would be, “Why did he die?” The disease cannot be the ultimate cause; it is merely a secondary cause. Donkeys run and kick quite frequently. And yes, a strong kick can kill a person. The question raised would not be, “Why did the kick from the donkey kill him?” instead, “Why did he die from that kick?” A donkey kicking is perfectly ordinary and not especially noteworthy. The interest and concern would be why that man was killed by a ordinary event. Earthly Other in the form of elephants share land with Torobo. The question would not have been why such a dangerous animal killed John, but why did John die in this particular encounter with elephants?
In these instances, the real questions would be: Was there sin in the man’s life? Or, did evil spirits overwhelm him? Obviously an evil spirit was at work because of the evil threat of death. Most likely Enkai allowed the incident due to a corrupt condition of Self or someone related. Events and the effects of events are insufficient for causal explanation. It is only an ultimate cause which can prompt a disease, donkey, or elephant to kill a particular person at a particular time. The notion of ultimate cause comes back to the causal choice of personal decision against the causal force of spirit entities and divine will.
Evil spirits figure prominently in the why answer of causation as agents intent on only one purpose, destruction. Evil spirits go about their task by influencing an individual. On the other hand, a good spirit operates in the service of Enkai as an instrument of goodness. The explanation of why something good happens is traced back to good spirits acting on orders from Enkai. If something good occurs, then the person must be good and this is only true if a good spirit is present within causing goodness to pervade the heart. Good or evil is not manufactured by man. The source of all good is Enkai, and the source of all evil is evil spirits.
The proverb declares, “He could shoot a rhinoceros, he that has been willed.” The word ‘will’ here is in reference to divine will. Any success granted by Enkai comes through a life without sin otherwise as the proverb declares, “Evil inside destroys you.” The value Torobo place on keeping an attitude of humility before Enkai manifested in blameworthy actions is fundamental to their understanding of created status. Created man finds self merit in mirroring the Creator; and in doing so, man is rewarded with physical longevity. Enkai was the only one capable of saving John from certain death and thwarting evil spirit intent.
Concluding remarks
The various forms and manifestations of evil that threaten a Torobo individual and their community, and at times overwhelm them, are associated directly with supernatural Other and indirectly with Self and earthly Other. All suffering and misfortune are caused or brought to a person by a spirit entity. The effects can be both deserved and socially destructive. Most calamities are considered consequences for evil present within the person. The effects of this evil are viewed as punishments aimed at correcting immorality that is characterized as socially inappropriate behavior toward a Torobo community member. The experience of negative consequence is meant to curve future behavior toward socially acceptable confines. By relegating the forces of good and evil to the category of supernatural Other, the inconsistent and unpredictable nature of life experiences are accounted for beyond the control of the person and society. Notions concerning supernatural Other provide for the spiritual need of Torobo who take comfort in a higher power predisposed to man with the resources to respond to any and all needs. Enkai is available at all times as an ultimate recourse for the person who finds themselves in difficulty. Creator Enkai has the power to intercede and is obligated to do so in Torobo world view, unless of course the individual is reaping the consequences of bad behavior and have earned punishment. If a person does experience some type of bad situation but manages to escape unharmed, it validates Self as a sinless person and as one without fault because Enkai has delivered. The intervention of Enkai assures the person of his rightful standing before the divine and Torobo community and places blame on the nature of evil spirits intent on harming all.
On one fateful afternoon, John Nkoitiko’s heart passed through his mouth as he looked death in the eye. Why was John so afraid of being surrounded by elephants? Because elephants are not polite to man – this beast of earthly Other has an evil spirit element that makes it dangerous to man. John was afraid of being killed. Why was he afraid of death? Because there is no afterlife in the spirit realm for man in Torobo world view. John has no hope of an eternal existence because he believes he will cease to exist at physical death. Why did he pray to Enkai? Because only the divine has the power to deliver him from death. Why did Enkai save John? Because John had no sin in his life worthy of a death sentence. He counted his sins and expected to die. Instead he found divine providence was in his favor, his heart returned and brought with it divine courage to escape.
References
Baumeister, Roy and Leonard Newman, 1994, How Stories Make Sense of Personal Experiences, Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin 20:6, 676-690.
Bradt, Kevin, 1997, Story as a Way of Knowing, Kansas City, MO: Sheed & Ward.
Gardiner, Howard, 1985, The Mind’s New Science: The History of the Cognitive Revolution, New York: Basic Books.
Gergen, Kenneth and Mary Gergen, 1988, Narrative and Self as Relationship, In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Leonard Berkowitz, ed. pp. 17-56, Vol. 21. New York: Academic.
Kearney, Michael, 1984, World View, Novato, CA: Chandler and Sharp.
Kenny, Michael, 1981, Mirror in the Forest: The Dorobo Hunter-Gatherers as an Image of the Other, Africa 51:1, 477-496.
Miller, Peggy et al, 1990, Narrative Practices and the Social Construction of Self in Childhood, American Ethnologist 17, 292-311.
Sankan, S. Ole, 1995, The Maasai, Nairobi, Kenya: Kenya Literature Bureau.
Steffen, Tom, 1998, Foundational Roles of Symbol and Narrative in the (Re)construction of Reality and Relationships, Missiology 26:4, 476-494.
Weiss, R, 1992, The Emotional/Affective Revealer of Cultural Dynamics, Fuller Theological Seminary. School of World Mission, Ph.D. in Intercultural Studies.
Appendix A
Personal Narrative: Experience of God's Protection
Date recorded: 9/25/97
By: John Nkoitiko, male, age 39
Atudumunye enkolong nabo nalo olduka le Melelo alo ainyangisho.
I awoke/day/one/I went/to a shop/of/Melelo/to go/shopping.
I got up one day and went to a shop in Melelo to shop.
Nashukunye najo alotu kajo saa uni enkewarie nabau narem entim.
I came back/when/I returned/when/I came/Let's say/time/three/night/I reached/pass through/forest.
When I returned, let's say at 3:00 am, I went through a forest.
Kore parem entim nalo najing atua iltomia eitu ayiolou.
When/I pass through/forest/going/I entered/inside/elephants/without/knowing.
As I was passing through the forest, I entered into an area of elephants without knowing it.
Adol nabaiki ake najing empolos. Naiputukunyu amu atejo aingor ewueji pooki atangadutua.
Saw/I reached/just/I entered/in the middle./I was afraid/because/I tried/to look/place/every/surrounded.
I went right in the middle of them. I was afraid and tried to look for a place [to escape] but was surrounded.
Duo ten wueji pooooki! Tedukuya tesiadi o toomurten nalau enalo.
Early/a place/all/early am/after/and/all sides/I did not get/where to go.
[I looked for] a place [to escape] early in the morning, but could not find one because the elephants were on all sides.
Naiputukuny neaku kore oltau kaajo aimu enkutuk! Oltau aimu enkutuk!
I was afraid/it came to pass/heart/tried/to pass through/the mouth!/Heart/pass through/the mouth!
I was afraid so my heart tried to pass through the mouth. My heart passed through the mouth!
Nataa kaaikirikira osesen pooki. Lai naiken ngok najo, "Atua. Etaa enkitingoto ai ena enkolong.
And then/I was shaking/the body/all./My/I counted/sins/said,"/I have died./It is/the end/me/this/day.
And then my whole body was shaking. I counted my sins and said, "I have died. It is the end of me this day."
Ai taata ena paaye." Nanu kore aa ina ailetito natum oltau oyeuo nayomon Enkai.
Me/today/this/die."/I/when/it/that/was surprised/I got/heart/came/I prayed/God.
Today is when I am going to die." When I was still surprised by the elephants, my heart came and I prayed to God.
Najo, "Oo! Nai Nai! Atoomono Nai Nai! Aatoomono etaa taata duo aye. Oi! Inkiyioitin ainei."
I said,/"Oo!/God/God!/I pray to you/God, God!/I pray to you/have been/today/exactly/I will die./"Oi/children/my."
I said, "Oh! God, God! I pray to you God, God! Today I will surely die. Oh! My children!
Naitoki aishir kake naaretu Enkai. Nalo tekungu nalo ake kung nalo te nkoshoke alutoo oleleshua.
I once more/cried/but/helped/God./I went/to knees/I went/just/both knees/I went/with/stomach/below/oleleshua plant.
I cried again but God helped me. I went on my knees, just [crawled] on my knees and stomach under the oleleshua plant.
Aingru enamurutie agiroo ake nelo olikæ naa nelolikæ.
To find/pass before/gøonly/here/is another/and/here is another.
I passed under the plant then looked for another and passed under again.
Naibungaa nkujit omashomo adumunye teneba ana idie.
I took hold/grass/until I went/wake up/far/like/there.
I took ahold of grass until I went far enough to get up.
Nalo taa atum engolon nadumunye taake nalo omatabai enkambi.
I went/get/strength/Igot up/just/went/until reached/camp.
I regained my strength and went until I reached camp.
Kore paabaya enkaji duo natii eton ake duo aa kaningito ajo kaasuju pasa doi ainguya orrikie?
When/I reached/house/earlier/where there are/when/still/have/feeling/that/follow me/really/following/footsteps?
When I reached the house where I lived, I still had the feeling, are the elephants following me by smelling my footsteps?
Naiputukuny eton ake aa kore pee aning oltau lai kejo, "Tuk! Tuk! Tuk! Tuk!"
I was afraid/after/being/when/so that/felt or heard/heart/my/saying,/"Tuk/tuk/tuk/tuk!"
I was afraid even afterwards and heard my heart saying, "Tuk! Tuk! Tuk! Tuk!"
Neaku kaiture ninye oltau amu kajo, "Keninche lelo okuetu?"
It came to pass/scared/it/heart/because/I say or think,/"There the one/those/running after."
My heart was scared because it thought, "The elephants are still running after me."
Etaa kejo oltau, "Tuk! Tuk! Tuk! Tuk!" Ade too saai kumok ashomo ayiolou ajo etaa eitu aasuju.
Have been/saying/heart,/"Tuk/tuk/tuk/tuk!"/Later/for/hours/many/having gone/know/that/happened/they did not/follow me.
The heart said, "Tuk! Tuk! Tuk! Tuk!" For many hours later, I knew that the elephants did not follow me.
Naton tesaa naado aitodolita oltau lai ajo mesidai osesen lai o rubat pooki.
I stayed/hour/long/showing/heart/my/that/no good/body/my/with/forest/all.
My whole body, the heart and the joints, stayed very tired and sore for an hour or longer.
Nayomon Enkai amu teneme ninye enaata atua amu eitu ajo likæ tungani ajo ake Enkai.
I prayed/God/because/if not/Him/then could have/died/because/never/save/anyelse/person/save/only/God.
I prayed to God because if not for Him, I could have died because no one else saved me only God.
Nemaata engoki amu enaata atua.
I do not have/sin/because/I could not/died.
I do not have any sin [in my life] or I would have died.
Naiken ake ajo Enkai naatushukuo ena kop amu enaata atara nena nguesi pooki.
I counted/only/say/God/brought me back/this/earth/because/I could have been/killed/those/wild animals/all.
I counted my rescue as only from God who brought me back because I could have beenkilled by all those wild animals.
Eeh, Enkai naitajeuo inoolong amu enaata atua.
Yes/God/saved me/that day/because/I could have/died.
Yes, that day God saved me because I could have died.
Eeh, Enkai nasipa naishu ninye naataretuo meetæ æ Ai.
Yes/God/the true/living/is the one/helped me/no/other/god.
Yes, the true living God is the one who helped me and not any other god.
Eeh, ninye naitajeno amu aitayio tiatu iltomia.
Yes/he/saved me/because/removed me/inside/elephants.
Yes, he saved me and removed me from inside the elephants.